Biographical characteristics and Learning

Ch 2: Foundation of Individual behavior:

1. Biographical characteristics:

1.         Age:  there are two distinct age group younger and older,

2.         Gender: male and female.

3.         Race: individual favor race which affect employment decision.

4.         Social Groups: focus for scheduled cast , tribes and backward classes( Reservation benefits)

5.         Tenure: duration of time in the job.

6.         Religion: people of different religion faith conflict, so manger need to be sensitive.

7.         Sexual orientation: inter-sexual, gay, lesbians

8.         Gender identity: focus on employees who change gender, i.e. transgender.

2. Ability:

It is an individual capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It is made up of two set of factors, intellectual and physical abilities

2.1 Intellectual abilities: the capacity to perform mental activities, i.e. thinking, reasoning and problem solving. Different test involve are IQ, GMAT, SAT.

2.1.1Dimensions of Intellectual Ability:

•          Number aptitude: ability related to calculating speed and accuracy.

•          Verbal comprehension: ability to understand what is read or heard.

•          Perceptual speed: ability to understand the similarities and differences, quickly and accurately.

•          Inductive reasoning:  ability to identify logical sequence of problem and provide solution, moving from particular to general.

•          Deductive reasoning:  ability to use logic and assess the implication of an argument, moving from general to particular.

•          Spatial visualization: ability to imagine and visualize about an object or situation.

•          Memory: ability to retain and recall past experience.

2.2 Physical Abilities: the capacity to do the task that demands stamina, strength.

2.2.1 Nine Basic physical abilities:

Strength Factor:

1.         Dynamic Strength: ability to exert muscular force on regular basis

2.         Trunk strength; ability to exert muscular force using trunk or abdominal muscles.

3.         Static strength: ability to exert force against external objects,

4.         Explosive strength: ability to expend maximum energy tin one or series of acts in minimum time.

Flexibility or Agility Factors:

5.         Extent flexibility: ability to move the trunk and back muscles as for as possible.

6.         Dynamic Flexibility: ability to make rapid, flexing movements.

Other factors:

7.         Body coordination: ability to coordinate all parts of body.

8.         Balance: ability to maintain balance while moving muscles of body.

9.         Stamina: ability to regularly exert energy for long period of time

3. Ability Job Fit:

Ability Job Fit is the situation when the ability of the individual matches’ with the requirement of the job. This situation can be determined by analyzing all the ability need as per the requirement of the job.

4.     

          Learning:

It is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs in individual a result of experience. The change is behavior is directly associated with successful learning. i.e.

Permanent change in behavior =successful learning.

Thus, learning must focus on

·         Changing the behavior

·         The change must be permanent and

·         Individual should experience change

4.1   Theories of Learning:

Theories provide framework of understanding concept or ideas, but they are not universal and remains valid in specific situation.

4.1.1          Classical conditioning: This theory of learning is developed by Ivan Pavlov (1900). He tried to prove it through an experiment: Teach dog to salivate in response to the ringing of bell.

In this experiment:

·         First Pavlov showed a piece of meat which elicited salivation in the dog.

·         Secondly he rang a bell which did not elicit salivation in the dog.

·         Thirdly he linked the meat and ring of bell before giving the meat for number of times.

·         Lastly he rang the bell, but didn’t provide any meat, now the dog began to salivate to the sound of the bell.

·         Now, the dog has responded to salivate to the ringing of the bell.

              Important aspect of the experiment:

·         Unconditioned stimulus(UCS): (Meat)which resulted in unconditioned response(UCR) (salivation in the dog)

·         Conditioned or artificial stimulus (CS) :( bell) which resulted in conditioned response (CR) (salivation in the dog), after the bell was paired with meat.

Thus conditioned response =Association between conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus. (UCS)

Classical conditioning has been used in organization in situation, like, example

·         Best behavior =top officer visit (UCS)and cleaning of window and office (CS)

Employees have learned to associate cleaning of window, with the visit form the head office.

·         Be prepared= Notice for meeting (UCS) and visit form the members form head office (CS)

 Employees have learned to associate visit of employees form head office, with notice for meeting.

However classical conditioning is a passive approach where the behavior is unlearned or reflexive, but what about behavior which appears voluntary or learned?

4.2   Operant conditioning:

It was developed by B.F. Skinner who focused that the behavior is the function of its consequences.

i.e.        Behavior=f (consequences)

                Behavior= f (to get something individual want OR to avoid something they don’t want)

His theory is based on boar concept of behaviorism, which states: “Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion”.

Skinner believed that reinforcement or lack of reinforcement will determine the tendency to repeat such behavior. Thus continuation of behavior is dependent upon the reinforcement factor.

·         People are most likely to engage in desired behavior if they are positively reinforced or rewarded

·         People are less likely to repeat the behavior which are not rewarded or punished.

Operant conditioning has been used in situation like, example

·         A manager says Doing hard work will lead to more pay.

·         Not following rules and regulation will lead to cut in payment of wages.

4.3   Social learning:

·         Focus on change in behavior through observation and direct experience

·         It is extension of operant conditioning

i.e. behavior= f(consequences+ observational learning and importance of perception (ability to analyze and understand)in learning.

Example:

If an employee sees his senior receiving reward for the innovative work, the employee will try to work hard and do innovative work to get the similar reward.

4.3.1          Process in social Learning:

Attentional Process:  Learning through observing model, when individual recognize and pay attention to its critical features.

Retention process: It states: How well individual remembers the model, when it is no longer available.

Motor Reproduction process: It states: focus on demonstration of the modeled activities after confronting the new behavior.

Reinforcement process: positive reinforcement is required (incentive or reward). +ve reinforced behavior are given more attention, learned better and performed more often by individual.

4.3.2. Shaping: A managerial tool

·         Focus on how organization can teach employee to behave in ways that is beneficial to organization.

·         It is systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

4.3.3.        Methods of shaping behavior

·           Positive reinforcement: Providing a reward for a desired behavior.

·           Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.

·           Punishment: Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

·           Extinction: Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation.

	Reinforcement (behavior increases)	Punishment (behavior decreases)
Positive (something added)	Positive Reinforcement: Something added increases behavior, reward	Positive Punishment Something added decreases behavior
Negative (something removed)	Negative Reinforcement Something removed increases behavior, unfavorable situation	Negative Punishment (extinction) Something removed decreases behavior

4.3.4          Schedules of Reinforcement:

1.         Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every time when the desired behavior is demonstrated.

2.         Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcing only o time to make sure that the behavior worth repeating, but not every time.

3.         Fixed interval schedule: Providing reinforcement at regular interval of time.

4.         Variable interval schedule: providing reinforcement in unpredictable interval of time.

5.         Fixed ratio: giving reinforcement after a fixed or constant number of responses.

6.         Variable ratio: Providing reinforcement at varying number of responses

4.3.5          Behavior Modification: can be done with…

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1.         Identify critical behaviors- that make a significant impact on the employees’ job performance.

2.         Develop baseline data -to determine the number of time the identified behavior is occurring.

3.         Identify behavioral consequences- helps to know the cause of the behavior.

4.         Develop and apply intervention- develop strategy to strengthen desirable behavior and weaken undesirable behavior.

5.         Evaluate performance improvement- to make sure that learning took place.